Organ Donation Ethical Issues

Organ Donation Ethical Issues The need for the organ transplant is increasing in our sector of health care as more and more end stage diseases are being diagnosed. Organ transplantation may be a life-saving option, but they are not without their challenges and risks. The concept of organ transplantation is both miraculous and challenging at the same time. Whether a patient needs a new kidney, liver, heart, or lung, there are multiple issues that the patient and the family need to deal with. They involve decisions before the transplantation and medical issues postoperatively. An organ transplant bill that had been under study with the senate since 1992 was finally approved on 5 September 2007 as A Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Ordinance 2007 by the Government of Pakistan, and many illegal organ donation and transplantation centers were closed down and many senior doctors involved in the act were charged against it. The issue over here is much diversified and complex when we go into the details of the consequences of the act. Firstly, the question arises of what is right and what is permissible? Secondly, the right of making the laws for the right and wrong act is disputed and challenged by mankind, on the basis of his reasoning and self judgment. Moral Issues The organ transplantation has been long debated and addressed by many scholars from both religious and secular perspective. The major issues concerning the wide permissibility of the act are of bypassing the virtue ethics cardinal features: respect for autonomy, nonmaleficence, beneficence and justice. If we further categorize the ethical dilemmas we can address he organ transplant act under these broad types, which encompass their own challenges when it comes to making a sound and safe decision. These categories are: Transplant organ from a living person. Transplant of organ from a dead person Transplant from a fetus. If we were not being guided by the supreme law, which has been transedented on us, and let us believe, that man has the power of brains over all other logics and laws of nature. Then trying to find any solution for a given problem, or setting any rules to follow for any system to work would have been very difficult. In other words trying to find analogies for God grounded systems is beyond human competence and reasoning. Considering moral principles Considering the issue of organ donation and transplantation, the respect for autonomy is the right to choose for the decision making of certain biomedical ethical dilemma. It not just involves giving respect for the attitude, but also for the action to be performed. From pure secular ethics point, we can relate what Immanuel Kant had recognized from the concept of unconditional worth, stating that each individual has the capacity to determine his or her own moral destiny. To violate a persons autonomy is like treating that person merely as means, without regard to that persons own goals. Example if a person s dead and his organs are taken from his body without his previous advance directives of any such act, then, its again considered to be using that body as a means. But what if that organ was so precious in saving the life of a living person, who could have benefitted humanity if given a chance to live, e.g. a doctor or a well trained militant, etc. this shows the beneficence over the autonomy and serving the utilitarian ethical principle. If we consider the case of organ taken from a fetus, then again who is the ultimate supreme authority to give consent on behalf of that minor? What makes one decides the ruling of a certain act to be just for an individual? Then here comes the question of, who plays the role of the unquestionable evaluator and who among us is eligible to be devoid of all flaws in reasoning and decision making? Does the living donor has the ultimate right over his body or his relatives who have the right to decide the answer to this if another influential family member is the supposed recipient of the organ? A wife cannot take decision over her own medical issues without her husbands will and consent? A poor clan member of a certain tribe falls victim to the Jirga rulings. Similarly what happens to the war prisoners? The freedom fighters in occupied areas, who have been mutilated for organ trafficking? Who plays the role of just decision mak ing and for what principle? Is it justified that Greatest happiness Principle is fulfilled by the Utilitarian approach? Kantian approach, a duty to save human life? Egalitarian approach, to get equal benefit? Communitarian to serve the community benefits at the cost of ones own necessities and health. The questions remains open ended, if we try to rebut the argument with one ethical principle, then the other might get offended. Does virtue ethics answers every thing? Promoting Organ transplantation has three basic issues namely social, religious and political. The controversy still goes on whether to openly accept the permissibility of the act or to completely Bann it. Another important debate is on the issue of burial in case of cadaveric transplants. The question is of the sanctity of the deceased maintained at the time of burial if he is stripped off all his organs and a hollow coffin is buried instead; would any of us want such an end of life. Moreover some people are of the view that every individual holds the right to be buried as a whole and taking out his body organs (in cases when he hasnt left a clear will regarding the issue) despite in all good faith sounds unethical. These delicate and intricate details further complicate the allowance of this transplantation and organ donation act in full context in all diversities of cases. But the arguments strength depends upon careful analysis of each of the cases keeping in mind all kinds of ha rms and benefits ; be it physical, emotional or financial pertaining to the donor, recipient, and / or their families. Argumentative views regarding the retrieval of an organ from a cadaver as being a part of the corpse or not is also an aspect that cannot be overlooked. The controversial role of Advanced Directives has led to two main questions: 1. Does one have legal rights over ones body? 2. If that is the case, then what exactly is wrong with even selling something that belongs to me? Another view held by many individuals is that, so what it is just an organ? People can sell their organs, which is supposedly their ownership, to gain financial benefits for their families. This again holds the view of providing benefit to many, without doing harm(as the removal of organ is done under anesthesia). But doesnt this promotes the evil of organ trafficking which would harm many poor population and weaker ones in the society. This consequentionalist approach is again challenged here. The chain of this reaction would eventually affect many people, be it a good end or a bad. The principles of beneficence and nonmaleficence can be advanced in the context of different issues: like the expertise available, the disclosure of all the possible outcomes and complications of the procedure, for the donor and the recipient, both medical and financial. The support that would be needed by the family and the prognosis of such advanced procedures should be looked into detail to benefit the patient and do no harm to the donor and the family members. The professional may have an influential role on the decision making. The autonomy of the patient is usually surrogated by the financial and moral obligation of the social setup. There is a strong need for a system to keep a check on the medical problems of certain disease transmission through non screened donor organs, the use of unskilled surgeons in removing the organ, organ trafficking and selling, the actual financial damages of the post operative chemotherapy and potential need for the failure of the graft or re-transplantation, the actual life expectancy even after the transplant of individual case etc. Every states constitution differs in some aspect to their religious and cultural norms, example, what ever is permissible in Germany is not accepted in many Muslim states, so the need for a definite, supreme, sovereign law cannot be denied. Conclusion Finding the ultimate law which would be unchallengeable and flawless is yet to be defined by the human nature. The unlimited limits of transedental laws and reasoning begins, where my horizons of imagination and limited reasoning ends. The noble act of organ donation should be encouraged only in the limits drawn by the Shariah rulings of the contemporary times in view of its divines as an act of saving the humankind and helping those who are suffering. It should be given prime importance that these rulings certainly apply to variations of case selection as well.

Human Resources as an important asset for companies

Human Resources as an important asset for companies The human resources are the most important assets of an organization. The success or failure of an organization is largely dependent on the caliber of the people working therein. Without positive and creative contributions from people, organizations cannot progress and prosper. In order to achieve the goals or the activities of an organization, therefore, they need to recruit people with requisite skills, qualifications and experience. While doing so, they have to keep the present as well as the future requirements of the organization in mind. Recruitment and selection, as a part of effective Human Resource Management is the key to achieving a competitive advantage for an organization. Nowadays, one of the most important concerns for all the business is that of people. The emphasis is on having the right people in the right place at the right time (Lanz, 1988). Seeking new employees is an essential element for each employer, not only in organisations where particular emphasis is placed on the companys human resources policy. Each employer wants to hire the most appropriate candidate for the job who not only has the right qualifications but whose personality will blend in well with the companys structure. The choice of the right people to form a team in organization is one of the most important factors leading to its success. Hence, to achieve this, a company has to pay a huge attention on the recruitment and selection process. Effective recruitment and selection procedures are vital in attracting and retaining high quality staff so every company should take them deeply into consideration. Moreover, human errors are much more expensive in comparison to such assets as land and capital, and often result in serious irreversible consequences. Here I need to add what are the goals of this dissertation I thinkà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.and what Ive included in a first chapter, secondà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ RECRUITMENT AND SELECTION Definitions of recruitment and selection Conducting business activities and competition between companies in developing international markets show, that Human Resource Management is the source of permanent competitiveness in contemporary business. This domain is not a single, simplified function, but a group of plans, systems, tools, processes and services. Each of these elements provides huge possibilities for profit, provided that one can use effective solutions in exploiting them. As the field of Human Resource Management has strongly changed in recent years, organizations were obligated to become more dynamics and complex. John Storey (2001, p.6) says that It is human capability and commitment, which in the find analysis distinguish successful organization from the rest. This sentence is essential to understand the fundamental tensions and ambiguities associated with Human Resource Management. People are non-material assets of a company and due to their importance have a strategic function. For that reason, recruitment and selection process should be permanent implicated and developed in company structures. According to Pilbeam Corbridge (2006) recruitment and selection process is based on action between applicant and job, which is dependent on stating a need by an organization, using the most appropriate recruitment and selection techniques and on reviewing, evaluating and modifying the recruitment and selection system in the light of experience. Bratton Gold (2003) defined recruitment like a process of generating a pool of capable people to apply for employment to an organization. Furthermore recruitment is a process of attracting individuals on a timely basis, in sufficient numbers and with appropriate qualifications, developing their interest in an organization and encouraging them to apply for jobs within it (Mondy Noe, 1993; Crawford, 2004). During this process, efforts are made to inform the applicants fully about the selection criteria of the required competencies that will lead to effective performance, as well as career opportunities the organization can provide the employee. Whether or not a particular job vacancy will be filled by someone from within, or outside, the organization depends on the organizations human resource policies, the requirements of the job to be filled, the talent to be found and, often, the organizational politics surrounding the decision (Nankervis et al., 2002). Beardwell (1994, p.192) als o indicates that the process of recruitment has two important purposes. Firstly, recruitment should focus on both attraction and retention of the interest of applicants suitable for a given job. Secondly, it should create a positive image of the organization in the eyes of people who come in contact with it. Newell and Shackleton (2000, p.113) define recruitment as the process of attracting people who might make a contribution to the particular organization. The importance of the recruitment function is clear when one realizes that by hiring the most competent applicants the firms performance can be significantly enhanced. In the course of this stage, it is the employer who must encourage the best candidates to apply for a position in the company. Selection is the process of selecting candidates who have relevant qualifications to fill jobs in a company (Mathis, R., 1991, p. 209). For the employer it is a stage during which decisions are made on who is the most appropriate of all the job applicants. The key point of selection is how to make fair and relevant assessment, which indicates strengths and weaknesses of applicant (Boxall P., Purcell J., 2003, p.141). Conversely, the quotation by Townley (1999, p.97) defines the notion of selection in that (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) by definition, it involves a process of discrimination, and the opportunity for managers to emphasize employee acceptability or the good bloke syndrome, rather than suitability residing in task-based criteria. It is a much diversified process: it may be short and simply boil down to reviewing and closely reading job application documents, and hiring a person. Or it may be a longer process also including a job interview and other techniques aimed at finding the best people. Pilbeam Cordbridge (2006) assert that good recruitment and selection is important element of the HR strategy, its forecasting requirements and a key to getting the appropriate people to attain a business goals. Moreover, recruitment and selection is a necessary element of people resourcing strategy, due to communicated policies, procedures and practices can considerably play a part in effective organizational performance, (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) to good employee relations and to a positive public image (Pilbeam Corbridge, 2002). Both the activities are directed towards obtaining suitably qualified employees. Recruitment activities lay the groundwork for the selection process by providing the pool of applicants from whom the selectors may choose. Although, the two activities are closely connected, each requires a separate range of skills and expertise, and may in practice be fulfilled by different staff members. Recruitment and selection are the most important activities in an ongoing cir cle (shown in Fig.1.1) of an organisation as a whole. Figure 1. Recruitment and selection in an organization (Pilbeam Corbridge 2006, p.143) Inappropriate selection and recruitment decisions can have a range of undesirable consequences for the organization and the recruit, including: reduced organizational effectiveness, invalidate reward and development strategies, unfair for the person applying for job and higher rates of turnover. Recruitment and selection are one of the most fundamental elements of the strategy of human resources managing. A wise choice of employees plays a key role in the functioning of an organization. Framework: Recruitment Selection Recruitment and selection are works of the same system and they are so closely connected, although as Foot Hook (cited in Rayner Smith, 2005 p.121) suggest that each requires a separate range of skills and expertise, and each function may in practice be fulfilled by different staff members, or indeed the recruitment function, but not normally the selection decision, may be outsourced to an agency, so it makes sense to treat each function separately, but Pilbeam Corbridge (2006) note that they are not mutually exclusive functions. Hence is many approaches to recruitment and selection tend, however they distinguish that a system has inputs, which are the candidates, a processing unit, which consists of various methods and techniques and outputs, which are also effective employees or candidates, who go back to the labour market and are or eliminate by the recruiters or choose to exit from the process. As Figure 1.2 shows, the recruitment and selection process and techniques are influ enced by the external factors like legal framework, economic situation, social and demographic changes, competitor activity, labour market characteristics and has some sub-systems to it which are interdependent to each other, changes in one will effects the others and also the quality of output. According to Pilbeam Corbridge (2006) theory the systems approach gives an analytical skeleton and allow diffusion through the selection and recruitment sub systems, which are: attraction, reduction, selection and transition. Whereas Kochan Barocci model (cited in Beardwell, Holden Claydon, 2004) point out that organizations have life cycles, and that recruitment, selection and staffing policies vary according to an organizations perceived stage in the cycle. While Goold and Campbell conclude that human resource strategies depend on management profile, whether is it strategic planning, financial control or strategic control (ibid.). Furthermore Anderson and Shackleton (1998, p.15) notice that recruitment and selection as a system is (à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦) comprised of a series of inter-related components. Important observation about the maxim of chronological dependency, says that it can only be as accurate as decision made in early stage to pre-screen down number of applicants. They emphasize that assessment techniques should predict and also affect on the future performance of employee. It is important here, to say that Human Resource Planning (HRP) is connection between strategic business planning and strategic Human Resource Management. This connection is the most visible in the recruitment and selection of specific numbers of employees with particular abilities, which match to companys requirements. This view made by Paul Iles (2001, p.139) shows why employees, as the most valuable assets in company, should be align to strategic business plan. Nowadays is a lot of variations in recruitment and selection practices, reflecting an organizations strategy and philosophy towards the management of people. That is why many organizations developed frameworks, which allowed them approve a variety of selection and recruitment techniques in order to identify and confess the right people (Bratton, J. Gold, J., 2003, p. 223). Figure 2. The System Approach to recruitment and selection (Pilbeam Corbridge, 2002), p. 115. Process of recruitment and selection Recruiting is an extremely complicated process consisting of many phases. Before recruiting, the company needs to proceed with planning phase. Each organization thus must consider a number of important steps in the planning phase. Firstly it should forecast human resource needs, than specifies job requirements as well as identifies and uses appropriate recruitment channels (Beaumont, P., 1994, p. 57). When planning to recruit one should also include: discussions with clients to predict future hiring needs; maintenance of a contacts network (candidates, employees, competitors); development and maintenance of a strong employee referral program; investment in recruiter training and development; cooperation with management to ensure adequate budget (American Management Association International, Aug 2006, p.10). The command to start the recruitment process comes from senior managers and should be based on a review of the situation to determine that recruitment actually exists. It means, that it should be made recognition of the needs for new human resource. To minimize the risk of wasted money, job analysis should be well done. For the first, job description should be written very carefully. A job description makes it possible for the recruiter to outline what duties, responsibilities and the reason behind the vacancy i.e. expansion, member of staff retires, and the position within th e structure of the organization (Beardwell, I., 1994, p. 195). The first step in the development of a job description is to establish the purpose and general objectives of the post, and then to analyse the requirements of the job. This process is called job analysis, and is particularly important in circumstances where you are preparing a job description for a new or significantly changed post. Job analysis helps to clarify the duties, responsibilities and other job demands. It also helps to identify the skills, abilities and experiences that someone would need to possess to be able to perform satisfactorily in the role (UCD Staff Manual, August 2005, p. II). The process of writing a job description can be very time consuming, especially if company dont provide any system for job analysis. This involves other co-worker from department in context to collect essential information about business nature and actual duties. To accurately recruit candidates, the second part of job analysis personnel specification is required (Beardwell J., 1994, p.195). Person specification is amongst one of the important factor of recruitment and selection that comes after the job analysis and job description as it relates to the person doing the job. Job analysis is the first stage of the whole recruitment and selection process and everything else is built upon it. It aims at finding out what is involved in the job that is now vacant. The effects of a mistake at this point are likely ricochet throughout all subsequent stages whereas job description involves the task and the scope of the job. The person specification profile is the people characteristics required to do the job effectively. The fact that an employer draws up a person specification demonstrates an attempt to introduce some objectivity into what can otherwise be very subjective process. Rather than relying on personal judgements about the knowledge, skills and qualities the successful candidate should possess, the emp loyer with a person specification is following much more methodical and reasoned process. The person specification can be included with the information sent to the candidates to give them more detail about the requirements. It is a good practice to design and send to candidates a form showing each requirement and how it will get assessed (Foot Hook, 2005). Two well-established systems of person specification frameworks discussed by Beardwell and Claydon (2004, p. 205) are (Roger, 1952) seven-point plan and (Munro Fraser, 1954) similar five point plan, illustrated in Table.1.1 and 1.2. It is important to be as precise as possible about the skills, knowledge, qualifications and attributes that are required for the job and about the experience and personal characteristics that are needed. It is good practice to specify what is essential or the minimum required to perform the job, as well as what is desirable. It is also necessary to think about the context of the job and the wider org anisational requirements to specify any elements of person-organisation fit that are important. Munro Fraser (1954) Impact on others: physical make up, appearance, speech, and manner Acquired qualifications: education, vocational training, work experience Innate abilities: quickness of comprehension and aptitude for learning Motivation: individual goals, consistency and determination in following them up, success rate Adjustment: emotional stability, ability to stand up to stress and ability to get on with people Table 1. Person specification framework (ACAS cited in Beardwell Claydon, 2004). Rodger (1952) Physical make-up: health, appearance, bearing and speech Attainments: education, qualification, experience General Intelligence: Intellectual capacity Special Aptitudes mechanical, manual dexterity, facility in use of words and figures Disposition: acceptability, influence over others, steadiness, dependability, self-reliance Circumstances: any special demand of the job, such as ability to work unsocial hours, travel abroad Table 2. Person specification framework (ACAS cited in Beardwell Claydon, 2004). When the process of job analysis has been completed and clearly identified, the next step in recruitment process is to attract quantity of suitable applicants with desired features. Company should consider some factors, like companys budget, level of vacancy, time and selection technique in order to choose the right way in recruitment process. Larger companies generally have a larger budget and are more able to find the best candidates for the job. Effective use of recruitment tools depends on the available budget. This due to the fact that recruiting is expensive and the more selection techniques used the higher the cost to the company, but in doing this the company has a better chance of finding the best candidate. The cost of recruitment and selection is not the only cost the company has to include in its calculation searching new candidates. The other costs the organization should take into consideration are costs of training selected candidates to undertake contributing role to the organization as well as the costs of recruiting and selecting the à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾wrong person (Cornelius, N., 1999, p. 29). Every company should adapt recruitment and selection costs to its policy, capabilities and vacancy and on this basis consider if to recruit internally or externally. Furthermore the level of vacancy is another one of the factors a company should consider before choosing a specific method of recruitment and selection. The decision making process is stipulated by individual needs of a company. In order to start the process of recruitment a company should have free vacancies. In fact, managers should decide if a free capacity either proves to be a job opportunity for a potential employee or whether there is an alternative option to resolve the situation. Hence, recruitment and selection processes should not be taken, when there is another opportunity, like reassigning the task to other employees or automated task, so than human resource are no longer required. We need to notice, that the higher level of vacancy provides more sophisticated methods of recruitment (Newell, S., Shackleton V. 2001, p. 25). Another concerning question a company should frankly answer is what kind of selection technique they need to apply, i.e. the one which may facilitate effective employment. A company should frankly answer the question concerning the kind of selection technique they may need to apply, i.e. the one which may facilitate effective employment. Bratton (2003, p.227) notes that appropriate selection technique should recognize the way in which people differ and must be extended to a prediction of performance in the workplace. The twenty-first century organization of work has lost a variety of available methods which give credibility to techniques that attempt to measure peoples attitudes and overall personality. The literature on the subject of organization differentiates between many selection techniques. The basic methods like application form or curriculum vitae are rudimentary to employment interviews. This phase of recruitment process is called pre-screening candidates, which will help t o reduce the numbers of unsuitable candidates and to apply more detailed methods of assessment. After pre-screening is time for candidate assessment. An extensive range of assessment methods is currently available to the recruiter like : biodata, assessment centre, work sample, references are very useful and reliable. Nevertheless the use of interviews is still the most popular selection method in the world. Branine (2008) founds interviews to be the main part of the selection process and that there had been awareness of the danger of subjectivity in the conduct of interviews. To avoid such danger, Gabb (1997, p. 64) argued that companies often prefer an interview panel of two or sequential interviews with different people. A recent comparative study of six countries found that the interview was one of the most popular selection methods. Despite, interviews being reported very often to be subjective and unreliable. It seems that the face-to-face contact with the applicant and the po ssibility of assessing the candidates social and communication skills are the main advantages of the interview, and hence the main reason for using it. While the trio of application form, interview and references is still popular, there have been further developments in incorporating those with the use of assessment centers which has been reported to be in the increase (Branine, M., 2008). Assessment centers are described by Pilbeam Corbridge (2006, p. 157) as useful in penetrating behaviors relating to interpersonal relationships, leadership, influencing ability, sociability, competitiveness, self-motivation, tolerance, persuasiveness, and decisiveness. Assessment centers have become popular venues for the selection of candidates, the identification of their potentials and the assessment of their training and development needs. The number of multinational companies from the USA has increased, more and more large companies are using a variety of tests ranging from ability to aptitude, personality and intelligence, especially those companies who receive a large number of applications and those needing more skilled employees. But as Marchington Wilkinson (cited in Beardwell, I., Holden, L. Claydon, T., 2004) quote none of the techniques, irrespective of how well they are designed and administered, is capable of producing perfect selection decisions that predict with c ertainty who is or who is not bound to be a good performer in a particular role. Figure 1.3 shows the accuracy of selection methods. According to Beardwell et al. (2004) the enlargement in using assessment centers and selection testing like a more accurate methods, can help to improve the effectiveness of the selection process. Though, assessment centers are believed to be the most influential selection method in organizations, but still the higher percentage of the firms considering interviews to be the most important selection method. However, doubts about accuracy push employers to approve the interview formats or supplement the interview with the other selection methods such as tests or work simulation (Beardwell et al., 2004). Data about accuracy of various types of selection techniques covers large differences within each technique. It needs to be considered in that point reliability and validity, but the detailed aspects of these two key criteria, which are already mentioned, are going to be explained in the following part of this dissertation. Table1.3 The predictive accuracy of selection methods Source: Anderson and Shackleton cited in Beardwell et al. (2004, p. 216)) Selection methods concept of validity reliability Reliability and validity, as statistical concepts, are very important for selection methods. Reliability is a link to the extent to which a selection technique achieves consistency in measuring. The statistical analysis normally provides a coefficient reliability. In summary of results, the higher will be coefficient (that is, the closer it is to 1.0) the more dependable the technique (Bratton J., 2003, p.235). Figure 3 shows the validity, estimated by meta analyses, of many selection methods. Good selection methods must meet four basic requirements: practicality, sensitivity, reliability and validity (Price, A., 2000, pp. 148-149). Practicality of the selection method means that it should meet the constraints of cost and time, whereas sensitivity focuses on distinguishing one candidate from another. Reliability of the method can be considered in three aspects: test-retest reliability the duration should not have an impact on the score when doing the same tests; inter-rater reliability the same scores should be given by different interviewers; internal consistency different questions measuring the same competence should give comparable results. Equally, validity has also three aspects: face validity tests are more acceptable when candidates find relevant questions; construct validity and predictive validity how well the suitability of candidates for the position is predicted (Price A., 2000, p. 149). It is possible to make a credible selection decision when the requir ed criteria are clearly marked out. If the criteria are not made clear it will be difficult to make an appropriate decision and will also be difficult to validate the selection process (Torrington, D., 2005, p.142). According to the study of Levy-Leboyer mentioned in the Cornelius book (1999, p. 39), the validity of many selection methods is debatable and that is why they should be used with care. As the high validity the following selection methods are thought: work sample, aptitude test, assessment centre and cognitive test. Medium validity has bio data, and the low validity: references, interviews, personality tests, whereas graphology and astrology do not have any validity (Cornelius N., 1999, pp. 39-40). Moreover validity studies carried out by Taylor (1998) and referred to by Armstrong (2006) found conventional interview methods to be questionable and suggested that alternative selection methods such as biographical data, assessment centres and work tests are more accurate methods of selection. While many studies in recent years have raised concern about selection and validity, the most widely used methods remain the classic trio application form, interview, and references (Taylor 2001). Early research showed that unstructured interview did not have high validity, so as to improve its validity interview should be more structured. It means that all applicants are asked the same questions and the same dimensions are used to assess applicants. Structured interviews should potentially increase the quality of decisions made (Newell, S., 2001, p. 33). However, according to Heffcutt Arthur (1994, pp. 184-190) improving the structure of interview does not increase validity. The question remains therefore, that if these methods are among the least valid, why are they still so popular? Armstrong (2006) suggests it is the comfort factor and that recognition needs to be given to the fact that both interviewers and interviewees like them and have grown to expect them. This is also known as mentioned before face validity. He also suggests that most interviewers / organisations may not be aware of what the research suggests. When compared with other selection methods, the classic trio is relatively low-cost and provides the opportunity to have a face to face meeting. In examining selection methods, Armstrong (2006) further suggests that too much innovation in selection methods may turn prospective candidates off. While some organisations may see this as a form of de-selection, the danger is that potentially high calibre and not just the less suitable candidates may be turned off by lengthier and more drawn out selection processes; even if they are more valid. However, Cornelius argues that using different methods of selection can increase the certainty of selecting the right applicant in a fair way (1999, p. 40) Figure 3 is based on Schmidt and Hunters (1998) review and shows the validity, estimated by meta analyses, of many selection methods. Source: Schmidt, F. L., Hunter, J. E. (1998). The validity and utility of selection methods in personnel psychology: practical and theoretical implications of 85 years of research .Findings. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 262-274.

New Public Management and Decision Making in UK Public Policy Essay

Discuss how the tendency of New Public Management has impacted on decision making in UK public policy. New Public Management is generally used to describe a management culture that emphasises upon the citizen or customer as being central, as well as having accountability for results. It also suggests organizational structures and promotes decentralized control, many different types of service delivery mechanisms, including quasi-markets with public and private service providers competing for resources. New Public Management does not suggest that a government should stop performing certain tasks. Although the New Public Management often is associated with such a perspective on a policy level, New Public Management is not about whether tasks should be undertaken or not. It is about getting things done better. New Public Management was devised as a means to improve efficiency and responsiveness to political changes. Its origins were in parliamentary democracies with excessively strong executive powers, centralized governments, and not much administrative law. In this setting, New Public Management embodies the idea of a chain of contracts leading to a single ministerial person who is interested in getting better results within a sector over which he or she has significant and relatively unchallenged control. One area of reform that illustrates many of the New Public Management principles is the creation of QUANGOs (Quasi-autonomous non-governmental organisations) to carry out the service delivery. The New Public Management argument for agencies is that service providers should concentrate on efficient production of quality services, with the distractions of evaluating alternative policies removed. The discussion of the creation of â€Å"executive agencies† in the UK and the similar developments in Australia, Canada and France has been common with references to clear, well-defined targets that allow providers to concentrate on their main business. Similarly, policy-making is seen to be more focused, more rigorous, and sometimes even more adventurous if it can be made without the burden of concern for the existing service providers. Once purchasing has been detached from policy-making, there are opportunities for creating contract-like arrangements to provide performance incentives. A pandemic of public sector management ref... ...or the problems of the public sector, a careful and selective adaptation of some elements to selected sectors may be beneficial. The public sector has been completely rearranged as a result of the tendency towards New Public Management and decision making within UK public policy has changed drastically, there now exists a much more formal and planned approach. References [1] Pollitt, C. and G. Bouckaert (2000) Public Management Reform Oxford, Oxford University Press. [2] Hughes, O. (1998) Public Management and Administration London, MacMillan, 2nd Edition. [3] Boyne, G.A., C. Farrell, J. Law, M. Powell and R. Walker (2002) Evaluating Public Management Reforms: Principles and Practice Buckingham, Open University Press. [4] George A. Larbi, 2000, â€Å"Public Sector Reform and Crisis-Ridden States†, â€Å"UNRISD†, 1st September 1999. [5] Lee, D., Newman, P. & Price, R. (1999) Decision Making in Organizations, London: Pitman FT. [6] Lindblom, Charles E. The Science of Muddling Through. Public Administration Review, 19 (1959), 79-89 [7] Downs, G. and P. Larkey (1986) The Quest for Government Efficiency, New York, Random House.

Essay --

Cognitive Psychology and its influence on Everyday Behaviour Throughout the ages, humans have had an inherent interest in studying the complex area of human behaviour, even before psychology was established as a science. Because the study of behaviour is so broad and multifaceted, its scientific study poses particular challenges. Therefore, it can be beneficial to approach the scientific study of human behaviour from the perspective of cognitive psychology. This is the study of cognition, the mental processes that underlie human behaviour (Ling & Cattling, 2012). This paper will explore the extent to which cognitive psychology can explain and predict everyday behaviour by critically examining a number of cognitive theories, and demonstrating their application in real world settings. For the purposes of this essay, I have decided to pick three everyday behaviours which tend to be common in the lives of university students, and approach the analysis from this angle. The essay begins by exploring the area of multitasking behaviours, and cognitive theories surrounding the area of divided attention and its effects on daily life. From here, the phenomenon of binge drinking among college students is discussed, in particular the effect it has upon remembering in an everyday context. Finally, the tendency of college students to spend large amounts of time listening to music is evaluated, with a particular focus on why it is that music can make individuals feel a particular way, tapping into the area of cognition and emotion. This essay will discuss in detail the contribution of cognitive psychology to our understanding of these behaviours. College students in the 21st century are a part of the so-called digital generation. Technology has... ...tion regulation is a crucial motivator for listening to music (Lonsdale & North, 2011). As such, cognitive theories are able to predict that listening to music has the ability to evoke an emotional response in student listeners. This essay explores the ability of cognitive psychology to explain and predict everyday behaviours. It explores three entirely different behaviours common in the everyday life of a student, multitasking, binge drinking and listening to music. For each of these behaviours, a general background is given to explain the behaviour. This is followed in each case by an analysis of some of the key cognitive theories which explain these behaviours. Finally, examples of the behaviour being carried out in the daily life of the college student are discussed, thus displaying the ability of cognitive psychology to successfully predict everyday behaviour.

Ameliorating Hospital Working Conditions Essay -- Nursing, CISM

It is found that most â€Å"nurses love their work and hate their jobs† (Berliner and Ginzberg 2742). Due to the current quality of the nurses’ environments, this is of no surprise. The major factor hindering the quality of hospitals is the level of stress in the workforce. While it is inevitable to eliminate stressors in all medical centers, how stress is perceived is a controllable factor. The idea of stress being controlled emphasizes the need for CISM programs in all health facilities of America to cope with the critical incidents and stress that occur on a daily basis. CISM, as defined by Tracy, is a â€Å"comprehensive, multi-component program based upon counseling principals and peer support processes designed to assist emergency health professionals’ when dealing effectively with the stressful components of their work† (28). The program is thought to be the most effective type of counseling in hospitals for critical incidents and stress, due to it s extensive step-by-step guideline. CISM is expected to increase nursing staff, patient satisfaction, and overall create more efficient health care facilities by mitigating negative stress reactions in hospital workers. The program will provide a safer and healthier environment for both the nurses and patients in the medical centers. In a study, it was found that hospitals with more positive work environments for their nurses have higher patient satisfaction (Greenslade and Jimmieson 1189). The higher patient satisfaction is most likely due to nurse’s more emotionally prepared to care for their patients in a thriving environment. CISM programs provide that healthier environment and better working conditions in the hospital. CISM was created by Jeffrey Mitchell initially to reduce the ... ... (2003). Crisis Intervention and CISM: A Research Summary. Ellicott City, Maryland, International Critical Incident Stress Foundation. Retrieved from http://cism.cap.gov/files/articles/CISM%20Research%20Summary.pdf Parsley, Lee Ann, Conditions and strategies Affecting Interagency Collaboration in the Development of Critical Incident Stress Management Programs. Diss. U. of Ohio, 2003. UMI, 3093687. Print. Sieben, Laura. Staff Debriefing after a Critical Incident in the Emergency Department. Diss. College of Scholastica, 2009, UMI, 14738626. Print. Tracy, Scott. How Cumulative Stress Affected the Lived Experience of Emergency Medical Service Workers after a Horrific Natural Disaster: Implications for Professional Counselors. Diss. Duquesne University, 2007. UMI, 3292249. Print.

Being Tall

7/30/12 â€Å"Six, seven†. That’s what I would say about twice a day when asked how tall I was. I’ve always been tall so over time I had gotten used to and annoyed of this question and I would usually make these feelings evident in the tone of my response. However, it wasn’t the only response I was used to giving. â€Å"I don’t have it†. That’s what I would say about twice a day when asked where my homework was. †C†. That’s what I would say when my friends asked me how I did on the big test. I repeated the same answers over and over again but never really thought about them.Over the past year I began to question these responses and came to the conclusion that they were the wrong answers. I wasn’t lying about my height or my homework, or my grades or my studying habits, but ever since I started to think about these questions I’ve been able to change the answers. I haven’t gotten any shorter or mor e intelligent but by actually thinking about the question I’ve been able to give the correct answer. I started to realize that I was being asked the same questions over and over around sixth grade.I wasn’t even thinking about high school back then let alone college and beyond so I still had some time to figure out the right answers to these questions. â€Å"Wow do you play basketball? † Teachers would ask as they saw me struggle to fit through the doorway. â€Å"Uhh yeah† I would flatly reply. â€Å"Why didn’t you study, you knew you had a test†. â€Å"I don’t know,† I wasn’t even thinking about what those words meant but it was still just the practice round for the real thing so I still had time to find the right answers.I was explicitly warned when high school rolled around that â€Å"it counts now†. It was spelled out to me multiple times that high school was the real deal and even my Freshman grades would coun t towards college. I was also told that I wasn’t done growing yet and I would only be getting taller. I wasn’t thrilled about either of these facts, but instead of using my height to my advantage or taking school seriously I continued to wander through my life getting increasingly tired of the questions I was being asked. Do you even want to go to this school? † â€Å"Yeah, yeah of course† I would jadedly reply, solely to humor the asker. â€Å"How great is it to be that tall? † â€Å" Yeah its pretty great, ha-ha† I would say politely, but emptily none the less. As my high school career continued and the college clock kept ticking I failed time and time again to find the right answers to these questions. Around the middle of my junior year the college process had begun and I had decided to go visit a college over March vacation.As I got out of the car I immediately fell in love with the school, the campus was perfect and the students looked like they were straight out of a brochure. All the school’s features were amazing and while on the tour I began to grow increasingly excited about the school and the idea of college. As the tour came to a conclusion all the prospective students gathered in a room to hear a lecture about the application process from an admissions officer. As I stood amongst the other students I realized that I was the tallest one there.I was used to being to the tallest person at a given place but this was different. I realized that because of my height, I stood out, but in a good way; all the admissions officers and faculty noticed me before the other kids there. I saw my height for what it really was: and untapped advantage I had been given. I realized that when people were asking me how tall I was, it was because they were astounded, almost impressed at my height. As I happily chewed on this realization, I was slapped across the face by a second epiphany.As the speaker went more into the ap plication process, he began to talk about the school’s average GPA for high school students; my GPA wasn’t even remotely close to this average. â€Å"They just boost those numbers up for the presentation† I lied to myself â€Å"I’m sure everyone else here is just as shocked by those averages† I looked around and literally every other student nodded in agreeing upon hearing the numbers. My separation from the group continued as the other students began to ask questions like â€Å"Are 3 honors courses enough or are you looking for more in an applicant? and â€Å"I only have a 3. 5 GPA but I take six courses, is that taken into consideration? † I started to feel something I had never felt before, an impending sense of doom that came over me like a tidal wave as I started to mentally panic that I wasn’t going to end up here, that I had thrown away a golden opportunity that was given to me. The feeling was sharp and it stung. I felt sick to my stomach on the ride home as I wallowed over the idea of not ending up at college at all. As I continued to think this over at home I came to the onclusion that this could be a good thing, I should take this realization and use it to turn my grades around with the little time I had left. I thought about the questions I had always been asked and realized that the answers I grew accustomed to giving were not in fact the right ones. I remembered hearing an old proverb that now seemed to be directly speaking to me: â€Å"No matter how far you have traveled down the wrong road, turn back. † Turn Back. That night I decided to turn back, even though I had traveled so far down the wrong road.When I came back to school after the vacation I felt stronger than ever, I was so ready to attack school. The second day I was ready to hear those oh so familiar words: â€Å"Where is your homework? † It was a small homework assignment and the teacher undoubtedly expected me to have b lown it off. â€Å"Right here† I proudly retorted to the impressed teacher. Later that day a man at the gas station asked me if I was a basketball player. Again, I proudly said that I was and made a friendly joke about having a tough time with it because I’m so short.As the semester went on I continued to walk towards the right path, correctly answering life’s questions. Every night as soon as I got home I would sit down and complete every homework assignment with consciousness and pride as opposed to half-heartedly completing three or four out of five assignments. With the new found knowledge that people naturally notice and look up to me, I am setting a good example around the campus for others to follow, from cleaning up trash in the student center to starting a new club. A began to find myself on the right road, even though I was a little late.My hard schoolwork paid off when my grades landed me on the honor role for the first time. I also decided to put my size to good use by playing football in the fall of my senior year. With all this being said, I am the first one to admit that I was the definition of a late bloomer academically. Having already experienced low academic performance I can honestly say that I want to excel through college and beyond, not just with grades, but in all aspects of life. In the end the answers are what count, not the questions, and I’m ready to answer any question life gives me, correctly.

Enrollment system

Chapter 1: IntroductionThe computerized enrollment system process the way of the school transaction can work easier and better way how the implement for the enrollment system. It brought a new level of the enrollment transaction. The said system can lessen the time for processing time of transaction because it is quick and automated. The hardware equipments like desktop computers and printers can process the transaction in order to work for to be done faster.1.1 Background of the StudyThe group programmers develop a proposed software system to analyze the particular problems in the school. The processing time of the transaction might be minimized how to access the student records very quickly rather than the usual traditional manual system. Another benefit of the proposed system is the convenient way of the storing and retrieving student information made easy and for the future use. The Academia De Covina, Inc old practices may replace for the group programmer’s proposed syste m that will cut down the cost of the materials needed for manual processing of the enrollment and reduce much effort.1.1.1 HistoryAcademia De Covina Inc. is located to Blk. 5 Lot 51, Casmalia St. Ph 2 Covina Village Buhay na tubig . Imus, Cavite is taken from the named of the Subdivision â€Å"Covina Village†. Established on the year 2004-2005 and the persons involved about the management of the school is the Jacobo family. They started with 50 Students, 1 room and 3 Teachers only. After the whole year they build 2 buildings or castle (literally in structure) for Preparatory and Nursery Department. The Academia De Covina, Inc is a private Christian school with a affordable tuition fee. Year 2008, The school was approved by the DepEd Recognized the school. Through the years, the school changes their architectural structures because they know students will increase need to adjust the department and room occupying for their study.The maximum of the students per classroom is 20 a nd all the room is fully air-conditioned.1.1.2 Mission and VisionIn the mission and vision statement of the school â€Å"The Academia De Covina, Inc† stated that how to lead students in their support for academic and how to become a good example individual in community through teaching a Christian studies. The student will have been achieved their goal and dreams and prepared for the challenges they encounter.1.1.2.1 MissionThe global, national and local situation is characterized by unjust structures – imbalance in the distribution of wealth and power, massive poverty and misery. Man’s greed and selfishness drives him to exploit others thus, debasing human dignity and values. Due to these prevailing conditions, we challenged for a commitment to personal and social transformation based on the teaching of Christ.In response to all these challenges and in solidarity with the Filipino people, Academia De Covina commits herself to be actively involved in establishin g a society that is free, just peaceful, and sovereign.1.1.2.2 VisionAcademia De Covina, Inc. Center for Early Childhood development Academics and Christian Education is committed to promote a nationalist education based on Christ’s teaching and human values founded on LOVE, JUSTICE, PEACE and TRUTH. In the context of the present situation and in response to the needs of the times, it strives to become a critical and active catalyst of change.1.2 Statement of the Problem1.2.1 General Statement of the ProblemHow to create a Computerized-Enrollment System for Academia De Covina, Inc.? The school enrollment system seems to be slow and take much effort so what if they didn’t want try the computerized-enrollment system to optimize particular problem involving the school.1.2.2 Specific Statement of the ProblemHow to create an Online Admission Form through web for Academia De Covina, Inc.? The team provides a Registration form liked web based system for enrollment. The enroll ee can input necessary information and easy getting all the data collected by the School administrator.How to create a module to handle registration of students?The software system had a registration form liked inquiry systems for the school which can be manage by the School Administrator to input the data needed from the students.How to create a module for payments?The proponents build also a module for the payment transaction of the students. This kind of module can replace the school traditional computation using the software MsExcel. The Accounting staff head pain for the computing much fee would be relieved by this.How to create a module that will generate the student list?Upon enrollment, the system can process of entering and verify data of student to register on a school. And through this system, can be sure that all the information will be kept in a database for handling records so that the process can minimize some problems like loss of records.How to create a module for f ile maintenance?Another ability of the software system is the file maintenance or record manipulation of the student records. It also views a single record by just searching or filtering doesn’t need to go through on the storage of files of student to find this.How to create a security access of program using number combination?To avoid the access of unauthorized person not involving the school entities, the team assures that the team management or the employee only knows how to operate the program.1.3 Objectives of the Study1.3.1 General ObjectivesTo create a Computerized-Enrollment System for Academia De Covina, Inc. The team established a software-based system which to manage student records in any transaction. It relieves the user and staff management of the school head from the pain stacking task of going through bulky storage of files of students to find a single record.1.3.2 Specific Objectives(INQUIRYAND REQUIREMENTS)To create an Online Admission Form through web for Academia De Covina, Inc.The team acquired a Registration Form in the web which the enrollee has an opportunity to register outside the school they didn’t to fall in line for the registration transaction of the school. All new enrollees are required to pass the requirements; it must be pass at designated school in-order the student update their record.(REGISTRATION)To create a module to handle registration of students.The process of registration would be less of workload because it doesn’t require papers to get the needed data from the students; by just simply inputting all the necessary data of current or new student of the school, it would be registered and certified.(PAYMENTS)To create a module for payments.The proponents ensure that this payment module is to reduce the error and to manage correctly the billing of each student in the school. By this module the process of computation would be quick in time-processing and all the tuition and balances of the student is auto-updated. It also displays the student invoice and official receipt when the student is already paid. There are fixed price for the tuition and other miscellaneous fee and when the Accounting staff needs to update this entire price; she may proceed to the change/update fee.(ENROLLMENT TRANSACTION)To create a module that will generate the student list.For the reliable handling of the student master list, the proponents include a single software database for fast and easy to get student records by just simply filtering and searching data from the student. It also provides opportunity for the staff and teachers to store their student records and all the information in a transaction will be save through the database that can be viewed and edited anytime.To create a module for file maintenance.The program has ability to manipulate data of student records. We can view, add new enrollee, delete old students and update.To create a security access of program using number combination.The team decides to add new feature security to access the program. Once the program start loading, the image of school will be pop-up need to find the secret picture and if the users find this secret picture, the program is now accessible to anyone of the employee.1.4 Significance of the StudyThe computerized enrollment system is the must have system in the school which gives efficient approach for both managements and the students. The Users of the program performed a back-up record in the software system regularly to avoid losing any information. The computerized enrollment system designed to store data coming from the students every time the transaction happens. It can use by accounting and admin department because it is connected on a server in a one database. The Online Registration System Site that the team plans to make is like simple registration form needed to input and to get all the data from new or old students.1.5 Scopes and LimitationsThe Desktop Computer or Laptop is the one of the useful equipment for the software system. The computer is a machine instructed and operated only by human. There is an advantage and disadvantage of using the said system.1.5.1 ScopesComputerized-Enrollment SystemSecurityLog-In ModuleLog-in module will enable the user access their concern works for the safety management of records and confidentially purposes.Log-in AttemptIt limits the login during the trying to access of the account. After the program iterated 3 times if the needed password didn’t match given to the employee, this program temporarily block inability to access the program.Database FeaturesStudent Identification SystemThe Student may be identified by its unique number given by this system. The ID number is a more useful data can be attached in the student information because it can call easily coming from the database to view their personal information.Recycle Bin ModuleThe program had ability to restore any records which deleted without confirmati on. It helps the School Administrator manage without misplacing records.Other featuresPrintable Print-OutsThe program can print sample papers Into hardcopy which the program display the fixed print-outs (Official Receipts, Documents Forms and other Reports) if they didn’t want to edit in other software. One of the features added from the software â€Å"Visual Basic.Net†.1.5.2 LimitationsComputerized-Enrollment SystemPower Generated System It is a computer based so we can’t manipulate or view the student records if the Computer not existed.Student Grades SystemThe proposed program is for enrollment transaction only and not for the student grades system since they have software used to generate the grades, the Microsoft Excel 2007.Online Payments via Credit CardThe team can’t make program to convert credit card into cash so the payment transaction is to be process inside the school. Enrollment System It is clear that the world has taken so many changes. Everything has changed because of the high technology people acquired now and these are the results of the studies made by the professional. They have come up with machines that are easy and convenient for the users. One of these is the computer.In a fast changing world, new emerging technology development has launched itself into the information market. Personal computer architecture evolves so fast that that that software engineering also adopts to cope with the change. School of whether private or public needs to specific software to automate work to lessen the hassle of scanning those old cabinet filed documents to find just a single record.Thus, most institutes nowadays have recognized the importance of computer to cope with the pressing demands of the market. Schools of today are using this technology in their daily transactions. Automated book monitoring system, student’s information system are must to ensure accurac y and efficiently in every school transaction.This study is conducted in order to improve the recording of the enrollment of Lahug Christian School ( LCS ). The researchers chose this institution as their respondent because the said school is currently using a manual enrollment system in processing student’s enrollment system.Problems are encountered using the manual system. It is the main reason why the researchers motivated to propose an Automated Enrollment System of Lahug Christian School ( LCS ). It will provide students and users a fast, reliable and more convenient way of acquiring information of the student’s records. It also  helps the administration provide information in a short period of time.Consequently, the researchers aim to develop and design an Automated Enrollment System to their respondent which is the Lahug Christian School.